Research

• In research, do not set out to prove something; keep an open mind.
• Research should be designed to test, document, or describe.

• Be clear and be concise (without sacrificing clarity).
• Use simple, straightforward words, sentences, and paragraphs -- not "prose".
• The purpose of scientific writing is three-fold:
• to record (to document) research,
• to inform peers (some of whom do not speak English as their first language), and
• to educate subsequent generations.
• Present your research in a way that your target audience will understand it.
• Your audience influences the presentation of the content.
• It would be inappropriate (and ineffective) to use the same written summary (or oral presentation) of your research for a group of specialists in your field and for the general public.

• Individual(s), place(s), object(s), or idea(s).
• Subject or object of sentence (usually).
• Proper nouns and common nouns.
Formalin [proprietary name is capitalized]: similar to Crescent wrench (i.e., adjustable wrench) and Kleenex (i.e., facial tissue)
Formaldehyde (gas) is not a proprietary name: formaldehyde solution [not capitalized]
• Collective nouns represent a countable group or collection (e.g., total, number).
A number of test tubes are on the table.
The number of test tubes on the table is four.
• Mass nouns represent an uncountable unit.
Amount = measurable but not countable. [Number = countable]

WRONG: The amount of students in class is five.
RIGHT: The number of students in class is five.
RIGHT (but odd): The amount of students in class is 320 kg.

• Pronouns replace nouns (nouns = antecedents).
• Clarity and meaning are improved if pronoun is near antecedent.
It is all right to give raw milk to your baby, but first boil it. [You should not boil your baby.]
Also important if pronoun is used in a sentence that follows the sentence with the antecedent noun.
Typically it is best to not use pronouns more than one sentence after the sentence with the antecedent noun.
• Difference between "its" and "it's".
A dog knows its master. [Possessive "its" has no apostrophe.]
A dog knows it's master. [Contraction for "it is" has apostrophe.]
• "I" and "me".
John and I will go home.
He went with John and me.

• Describe the subject or convey action.
• Nominalizations: turning verbs into nouns (often have "-tion" or "-ment" endings).
Installation of the computer can be performed in three days.
Development of the project took three days.
     Nominalizations are "smothered verbs".
     It is better to "activate" these verbs (make sentences clearer and more concise).
We can install the computer in three days.
We developed the project in three days.
• Overworked verbs: improving your "verb-al" skills.

     "Found" is probably the most overworked verb in scientific writing, and it deserves a rest. Consider:
1) Smith and Jones (2006) found significantly more pine seedlings in burned areas than in unburned areas.
2) Smith and Jones (2006) found ponderosa pines along the ridges.
3) Smith and Jones (2006) found the samples missing in the lab since 1996.
     In these examples, Smith and Jones "found" 1) a relationship in their statistics, 2) the occurrence of a species on
          the landscape, and, perhaps most appropriately, 3) the whereabouts of lost samples.
     The first 2 sentences could be improved with more descriptive verbs appropriate to their context. For example:
Smith and Jones (2006) reported significantly more pine seedlings in burned areas than in unburned areas.
Smith and Jones (2006) observed ponderosa pines along the ridges.
    One caution about choosing your verbs. Choose the best verb and stick with it in each context. Do not lose control
         and have your writing mimic a sportscaster on the evening news reading a list of scores:
             "Kansas City trounced New York, Chicago destroyed Miami, Portland squeaked by Denver, ..."

    In a world where "carbohydrates" have become "carbs", why do people prefer the word "utilize" to the word "use"?
    Save your syllables for a more important word.
Females with young utilized riparian areas.
Females with young used riparian areas. [BETTER]

• Adjectives modify a noun or pronoun.
A red apple.
It is red.
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
He proceeded slowly.
It was unusually small.
He moved very slowly.
[NOTE: avoid the use of "very", "quite", "rather", and similarly vague adverbs in scientific writing.]
• Place adjectives and adverbs as close as possible to the word they modify.

• Their purpose is to identify nouns, but remove them if clarity is not impaired.
Plan moves slowly. ["plan" and "moves" can be nouns or verbs -- two meanings possible]
The plan moves slowly. [plan is the noun; moves is the verb]
Plan the moves slowly. [plan is the verb; moves is the noun]
• "A" and "an" are used in the singular; "the" is used in either singular or plural.
... the river. (singular; definite article refers to a specific river)
... the rivers. (plural; definite article refers to a specific group of rivers)
... a river. (singular; indefinite article refers to rivers in general)
Use "a" before a consonant sound; use "an" before a vowel sound.
... a Master of Science degree.
... an M.S. degree. [an "em"]
... a Ph.D. [a "pee"]
It is an honor. ["h" is not pronounced so the word begins with a vowel sound]
It is a hotel. ["h" is pronounced so the word begins with a consonant sound]
A useful, consistent rule of grammar would be an unexpected revelation. ["yuseful"; "y" is a consonant sound]
A cell with a nuclear membrane is referred to as a eukaryotic cell. ["yu" is a consonant sound]

• Coordinating conjunctions connect equal parts. There are seven:
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
    We compared our data sets with a t-test, but none of the differences was significant.
• Subordinating conjunctions connect unequal parts, with one part "dependent" on the other. Among these are:
because*, since*, if, when, although, before, after, etc.
     We observed an additional individual after the sample period had ended.
     After the sample period had ended, we observed an additional individual.
* "Since" indicates a time relationship. Therefore, do not use "since" as a universal replacement for "because".
• Coordinating adverbs connect equal parts.
however, therefore, consequently, etc.
    They are preceded by semicolon and followed by comma when used in this manner within a sentence (see "Clauses" below).

• Combine with nouns and pronouns to form phrases that usually express direction or location.
to, in, on, under, of, etc.
• Preposition should be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies.
For sale, car owned by lady with dent in rear. [The lady has a dent in her rear?]
• Do not double prepositions.
NOT GOOD: Many animals lived inside of the park.
BETTER: Many animals lived inside the park.
• Do not use a preposition to link an adjective to the rest of the sentence.
NOT GOOD: She is too good of a person to complain.
BETTER: She is too good a person to complain.
• Avoid ending a sentence with a preposition.
NOT GOOD: Biology was what he took his degree in.
BETTER: He took his degree in biology.
NOT GOOD: Where are you at?
BETTER: Where are you?

• Prefixes usually change the meaning of a word.
antibacterial, undeveloped
• Suffixes change the status of a word.
develop to development (verb to noun)
• Not separated from root word by hyphen unless repeated letters could create confusion.
anti-insect, camel-like  

Prepositional Phrases

• Begin with a preposition.
• Serve as adjectives or adverbs -- keep them close to the word they modify.
NOT GOOD: Substantial literature has accumulated on the cell walls of staphylococci.
BETTER: Substantial literature about the cell walls of staphylococci has accumulated.
• Prepositional phrases can be used to avoid stacked modifiers (prepositions highlighted).
NOT GOOD: We searched for the Arkansas darter in small, clear, cool, vegetated, perennial streams.
BETTER: We searched for the Arkansas darter in small, perennial streams with clear, cool water and vegetation.

• Consist of "to" with a verb.
• Split infinitives (some people avoid them, but they can benefit clarity and flow; a single word is best).
The treatment failed to delay further signs of infection. ["further" refers to "signs"]
The treatment failed to further delay signs of infection. ["further" refers to "delay"]

• Participle = "-ing" verb used as an adjective.
• Dangling participles (no noun to modify or noun is not the closest to the participle).
NOT GOOD: Lying on top of the intestine, you can perhaps see a thin, transparent thread. [refers to "you"]
BETTER: You can perhaps see a thin, transparent thread lying on top of the intestine. [refers to "thread"]

• Gerund = "-ing" verb used as a noun.
Writing is difficult. [used as subject]
I enjoyed writing my thesis. [used as object]

• Independent clause is a portion of a sentence that could stand alone as a sentence.
No amount of experimentation can prove me right; a simple experiment may at any time prove me wrong. [Albert Einstein]
I tried to find my way out of the forest; however, I became hopelessly lost. ["however" connected by semicolon and comma]
I tried to find my way out of the forest, but I became hopelessly lost. ["but" connected by comma]

• Dependent clause is introduced by a subordinating word (e.g., if, when, whether, after, before).
We will all go together when we go. [no comma for clause at the end of a sentence]
When we go, we will all go together. [comma following introductory clause]
A cynic is a man who, when he smells the flowers, looks around for a coffin. [H. L. Mencken] [commas separate embedded clauses]

• Restrictive dependent clauses (that) & nonrestrictive dependent clauses (which and who).
My car was the only one in the accident that was not wrecked. [no commas with "that"]
    ["My car was the only one in the accident" does not have the same meaning -- restrictive clause is essential.]
My car was not wrecked, which is fortunate. [use comma(s) with "which"]
    ["which is fortunate" is not essential to the meaning of the sentence -- nonrestrictive clause.]


---

Alkaloids that contain nitrogen can be poisonous.  [refers only to alkaloids with nitrogen, not other alkaloids]
Alkaloids, which contain nitrogen, can be poisonous. [implies that all alkaloids contain nitrogen]

• Words and phrases in sentences and paragraphs should be parallel.
First, ...   Secondly, ...                   should be    First, ...   Second, ....
Pines are tall, slender, and have flexibility.    should be    Pines are tall, slender, and flexible.

• Use declarative sentences; avoid questions and exclamations in scientific writing.
• Transitional sentences help to connect paragraphs and maintain flow.
In addition, ...     Smith (1990) obtained similar results ...
Although ...     Thus, ...     Consequently, ...
• Place items at end of sentence that you want to emphasize.
• Mix sentence lengths.

• Active voice emphasizes subject; passive voice emphasizes action.
If the subject of a sentence is the "doer" of the action, then the sentence is in the active voice.
If the subject of a sentence is the "recipient" of the action, then the sentence is in the passive voice.
Selman Waksman discovered streptomycin, the first effective cure for tuberculosis. [active voice]
Streptomycin, the first effective cure for tuberculosis, was discovered by Selman Waksman. [passive voice]
• Active voice is generally more concise.
• Some journals "require" active or passive voice, but a mix is probably appropriate.

• First person.
We collected 30 species of fish. [first person, active voice]
Thirty species of fish were collected. [passive voice]

• Use of present tense and past tense.
• Established knowledge--present tense: Thirty species of fish occur in Big Creek.
• Description of methods and results--past tense: We collected 30 species of fish in Big Creek.
• Presentation--present tense: Table 1 lists the 30 species of fish in Big Creek.
• Attribution--past tense: Eberle et al. (1986) reported that 30 species of fish occurred [might no longer occur] in Big Creek.
• Future tense.
The rainy season will commence in October.
• Perfect tenses.
Eberle et al. (1986) had reported 30 species of fish in Big Creek. [avoid perfect tenses in scientific writing]  

• Abbreviations.
DNA         mL         HCl
Quivira National Wildlife Refuge (Quivira NWR)
Latin abbreviations are falling out of favor, but are still widely used in scientific writing.
      e.g. = exempli gratia (for example)       et al. = et alii (and others)       i.e. = id est (that is)
• Acronyms: abbreviations that become words.
SWAN (Southwestern Association of Naturalists)
• Opinion (class rule): Abbreviations and acronyms can be useful when space is limited (e.g., in figures and tables), but they are sometimes overused to the point of being rude to readers. Government documents are especially rude in this context to the point of being unintelligible to intelligent people outside of the government or specific agency. Thus, overuse of nonstandard abbreviations is elitist. In general, use of abbreviations and acronyms whose meanings are widely accepted and understood without definition are appropriate (e.g., DNA, mL). Otherwise, strive to be kind to your readers and limit the use of abbreviations and acronyms or at least try to limit them to broader subjects (e.g., Quivira National Wildlife Refuge should be Quivira NWR rather than QNWR).

• Be concise.
free gift
past history

• Unnecessary words and phrases frequently used in scientific manuscripts.
three different species (As opposed to "three same species"?)
in order to sample
time period   or   period of time (It will be clear from the context that you are referring to time rather than punctuation.)
one out of three
was located in (It will be clear from the context that you are referring to a location.)

• Necessary words that should always be used in scientific manuscripts -- complete standard common names.
largemouth bass ("Largemouths" could refer to idiots making a living as media talkshow hosts.)
bighorn sheep ("Bighorns" could refer to a mountain range in Wyoming.)

Problem Words and Phrases (see R. A. Day, 1995: Appendix 2; Hacker, 2007:123-137)

Sex, in biology, refers to anatomical features and their role in reproduction. Gender refers additionally to behavior.
Always use male and female, not vernacular names, such as bucks, does, etc. ("Does" could be a noun or a verb, which makes its use confusing.)

• Periods and Abbreviations.
DNA         mL         HCl    [no periods]
M. E. Eberle

• Separate independent clauses that have a conjunction.
A woman drove me to drink, and I never even had the courtesy to thank her. [W. C. Fields]
• Separate introductory words, phrases, or clauses (sometimes omitted after single words or short phrases).
On our trip down the coast, we saw four species of seals and sea lions.


---

Yesterday, we saw four species of seals and sea lions.
Yesterday we saw four species of seals and sea lions.
• Separate interrupting words and phrases (parenthetical or balancing commas).
Biology, like many subjects, requires much study. ["like many subjects" is parenthetical phrase]
Data like these should be omitted. ["like these" is essential to sentence]
• Separate three or more "equal" words or phrases, even the one connected with a conjunction.
NOT GOOD: He had a large head, thick chest holding a strong heart and big feet. [He had feet in his chest?]
BETTER: He had a large head, thick chest holding a strong heart, and big feet.
• Separate two or more modifiers (if you insert "and", does it still make sense?).
It was a dark, stormy night. [It was a dark and stormy night. Use comma to replace "and".]
It was a dark green dress. [It was a dark and green dress. "And" not used, so no comma.]
• Separate small units from larger units.
We live in Hays, Ellis County, Kansas. [Commas replace prepositions, such as "in": Hays in Ellis County in Kansas.]


---

October 1, 1999 (comma inserted because units of date are "out of sequence")
1 October 1999 (no commas; units are in sequence from shortest to longest) [preferred scientific style]

• Separate independent clauses.
Chloride levels in Little Salt Marsh ranged from 700 to 1,200 mg/L; however, chloride levels in Big Salt Marsh were between 2,000 and 2,800 mg/L.

• Avoid them in scientific writing, especially in contractions.
NOT GOOD: Eberle's (1999) results ...          We can't ...         1990's        GTA's
BETTER: The results of Eberle (1999) ...         We cannot ...       1990s         GTAs

One of the most troublesome uses (non-uses) of an apostrophe is with the word "species" preceding a noun.
    For example, "the species distribution" and similar phrases are commonly used in scientific writing with no apostrophe in sight.
    Wrong! "Its" is the only word accorded this special apostrophe-free status in the possessive form.
    If you wrote "the plant's distribution," an apostrophe would clearly be needed to indicate "possession."
    The best solution is to develop the habit of using the prepositional phrase: "the distribution of the species" etc.

The tendency is for words to loose their hyphens through time (e.g., co-operation becomes cooperation), but hyphens are used in specific situations.

• Used to link two or more words (adjectives) that jointly modify the noun that follows.
We used seines with a 6-mm mesh. ["6" and "mm" jointly modify "mesh"; hyphen is used]
The mesh of our seines was 6 mm. [no hyphen]
• Used to combine the parts of compound words (e.g., common names of some species).
Some names are hyphenated or combined because they were borrowed from other taxa.
Common Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is not a "true" fir (Abies sp.).
Incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens) is hyphenated, but western redcedar (Thuja plicata) is not; neither is a "true" cedar (Cedrus sp.).
Greater prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) and lesser prairie-chicken (T. pallidicinctus) are grouse rather than chickens.
Common names of vertebrates typically have hyphens in compound names when the second word ends in "ed".
Red-legged frog (Rana aurora)
Black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax nycticorax)
Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)
However, for some common names, the "ed" has been dropped, and the two words have been combined without a hyphen.
Orangethroat darter (Etheostoma spectabile) has replaced the formerly used name of orange-throated darter.
Roughskin newt (Taricha granulosa) is used rather than rough-skinned newt.
Bighorn sheep is used rather than big-horned sheep.
And for the common names of a few fishes, the hyphen has been dropped, yet the "ed" has been retained.
Orange-spotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis) is now orangespotted sunfish.
• Used to separate prefixes from proper nouns or numbers.
pre-Sputnik
pre-1990
• Now infrequently used to separate suffixes from root words.
ball-like (would have 3 consecutive Ls)
• Hyphenated words with a common base word and different prefixes listed in a series.
... inter- and intra-specific competition ... or ... inter- and intraspecific competition ...
... surface- and ground-water features ... or ... surface- and groundwater features ...
Alternatively, you could choose to avoid language laziness and write:
    ... interspecific and intraspecific competition ...
    ... surface-water and groundwater features ...
• Use common-sense. Does the hyphen improve clarity?
... an old-house owner ... [house is old]
... an old house-owner ... [owner is old]

recreation: what you do to relax
    versus
re-creation: what you do to create something a second (or third ...) time